Ëangluk
Ëangluk = Summary = Ëanglluk is a future version of English meant to be spoken by space colonists who have been isolated from Earth for long enough to develop their own language. The phonology has changed drastically, for example tone developed when consanants began to alter the pitch of nearby vowels. After consonant mergers tone became phonemic e.g. byet ''pronounced with a low tone means "bread", and with a rising tone means "breath". Other notable features are the development of ejectives, implosives and glottalised resonants, with the voicing distinction being lost everywhere except affricates. Uvular, retroflex and pharyngeal consonants have also emerged. The range of possible syllable structures has shrunk to © (j) V (j/w) ©.The grammar has also changed, with noun incorporation becoming much more productive. Word order has become Topic Verb (Subject) (Object) and the alignment has changed to ergative-absolutive. = Phonology = Vowels There are seven vowels. Before a nasal consonant all vowels are nasalised. There is one diphthong ae /ae/. Consonants (Phonemes in brackets are marginally phonemic) After a front vowel the velarised lateral l /ɫ/ is pronounced as a palatal []. Velar ng /ŋ/ can only occur after a vowel, and ll /l/ can only occur before a vowel. Retroflex consonants, ejectives, aspirated consonants, r /ɾ/, y /j/, rk /q/, q /ʔ/ and w /v/ can also only occur before a vowel.,The "glottal nasal" is realised as nasalisation of the preceding vowel (like some Japanese speakers do for moraic /N/. It can only occur after a vowel. As noted above the range of possible syllables is restricted to © (j) V (j/w) ©. However /j/ can only occur after velar and bilabial stops or vowels, and /w/ can only occur after a vowel. Also after an open syllable, the next syllable in the word must begin with a consonant. The combinations /aej/, /aew/ /uw/, /ɔw/, /ij/, /εj/, and /ɔj/ also never occur. Accent Up to one syllable in a word can be accented, marked by a h before the syllable. The most common way that accent manifests itself is by consonant mutation. p /p/ and t /t/ become implosive b /ɓ/ and d /ɗ/ respectively. The cluster ky /kj/ becomes implosive j /ʄ/, and in other cases k /k/ becomes pharyngeal c /ʡ/. The velar affricate x /kx/ becomes pharyngeal ch /ʢ/ and the glottal stop q /ʔ/ becomes h /ɦ/. The affricates pf /pf/ and ts /ts/ are voiced to bv /bv/ and dz /dz/ respectively. Nasals and approximants become creaky voiced. The accent cannot fall on syllables beginning with consonants that are aspirated or ejective, nor the uvular stop rk /q/ or the retroflexes rt /ʈ/ and rts /ʈʂ/ although it can fall on the retroflex approximant rz /ɻ/. A substantial minority of speakers downstep the tones for the rest of the word after an accent, with or without the consonant changes described above. The tone in a syllable immediately before an accent must be either Low or Falling, and in the syllable immediately after an accent it must be Low or Rising. If an aspirated consonant occurs in an accented word, then the is always immediately before it and the syllable has Rising Tone. If there is a syllable before this Rising Toned syllable, then it can only take Low or Falling Tone e.g. ''béathò ''/ɓε˨˦to˦˨/ - to be given battle, and ''qibéathò ''/ʔi˨ɓε˨˦to˦˨/ - who was given battle? are possible words (in both cases the accent is before the ea, turning p /p/ into b /b/. Apart from this case aspirated consonants cannot exist in accented words. Tone There are 6 tones in Ëangluk. There are many rules about how tones in a word can combine with each other and with consonants such as aspirates, ejectives and implosives. Low Tone: a /a˨/ pronounced at the bottom of the speaker's vocal range and either level or slightly falling Rising Tone: á /a˨˦/ starting at the bottom of the speaker's vocal range and rising. High Tone: a (unmarked) /a˦/ starting at the top of the speaker's vocal range and either level or rising slightly. Falling Tone: à /a˦˨/ starting at the top of the speaker's vocal range and falling. Dipping Tone: ä /a˦˨˦/ starting at the top of the speakers vocal range, falling and then rising again. Glottallised Falling Tone: â /aʔa ˦˨ / pronounced like the falling tone but with creaky voice. It can only occur in unaccented words, and only a maximum of one time per word and some consider this to be an accent on a syllable with Falling Tone. However Falling Tone only occurs in syllables that cannot bear accent. One important tone rule in words with two or more syllables is that if a the tone of a syllable begins high (High, Falling, Dipping and Glottalised Tones), then the tone on the preceding syllable in the word (if any) must have ended high (Rising, High, or Dipping Tones). Likewise if the tone of a syllable begins low (Low and Rising Tones), then the tone on the preceding syllable must have ended low (Low, Falling and Glottalise Tones). Another important rule is that the tone in syllables beginning with aspirated consonants can only be High or Falling. No other tones are possible in these syllables. Also if a word ends with an open syllable (without a consonant at the end) then it can only have Low or Falling Tone. = Tone Sandhi = Ëangluk has an extremely large number of bisyllablic words that are compounds of two monosyllabic words. Also a large number of words that were bisyllabic in English were broken down into two monosyllabic words, which were then recombined to make new bisyllabic words e.g. from the verbs ''ëxphoñl ''- export and ''imvôm ''- inform came ''exvôm - leak information (literally exform). From ëatheak ''- attack came ''ïntheak ''- to besiege and ''ëxtheak ''- to sortie. In isolation, the "ex" in export and the "in / im" in inform are pronounced ''êx ''and ''ìhn respectively. As we can see from these, tone sandhi is important in compound words. One syllable in a word is designated as a Strong syllable, and the others as Weak. In most verbs this is the last syllable, except in verbal nouns when it is the second last syllable of the root (it cannot fall on an infix). In nouns it is the second last syllable of the root, except in the possessive form when it shifts to the last syllable of the root. The most important factor in tone sandhi in noun compounding or incorporation is whether or not the word originally began with a vowel or a consonant Syllables beginning with consonants If the last syllable of the compound word is Strong, then the tone does not change. If the last syllable of the compound is Weak then the following changes occur in that syllable: If a syllable is designated as Strong and it is not the last syllable of the word, then it may or may not change tone depending on the following syllable. If the syllable is designated as Weak and it is not the first or the last syllable of the word, then the following changes occur: If the syllable is designated as Weak and it is the first syllable of the word, then the following changes occur: Note that the last two cases are identical except for syllables beginning with an aspirated consonant. Note that phy /phj/ and ph /ph/ do not go through the above sandhi process and become y /j/ and a glottal stop q /ʔ/ instead (this is because Ëangluk does not like ejective p). Syllables beginning with vowels When these syllables are combined into compound words, then their tone depends on both the preceding and following syllables. However in isolation, syllables beginning with a vowel can only be of two types, Glottalised Tone or Dipping Tone. Here is how they change: As can be seen, in syllables that do not begin with a vowel, the original tone only matters at the end of words. Going back to the examples above - to export was broken down to ë''x'' and phoñl. ''Likewise ''imvòhm ''- to inform was broken down to ''ìhn /'' ìhm'' and vòhm. Then using the rules above they were combined to make verbs like ëxvòhm. By changing the 1st syllable from Weak to Strong and the 2nd syllable from Strong to Weak, nouns can be derived from these verbs e.g. (to export) -> ë''xpoñl'' (an export), imvòhm (to inform) -> ï'mvòm (information), - (to leak information) -> ëxvòm (a leak of information). This is analagous to (and indeed descended from) English words like "impact" which are nouns when the stress is on the first syllable e.g. IM-pact and verbs when the stress is on the second syllable e.g. im-PACT. This process is extremely productive in Êangluk as in the following examples: phaeleits ''- security guard (from English police) ''qaelëits ''- to employ security for a venue ''phartsàu ''- protected / secure area (from English patrol) ''qartsâu ''- to patrol ''ëapfòi ''- application ''ëaphfòi - to apply hrzékòñt ''- record (noun) ''hrzékhòñt ''- to record (verb) = Basic Grammar = Plurals are marked by a - suffix in words ending in a vowel e.g. ''be - bear.ABS -> bets - bears.ABS. In words ending with a -''k'' the plural form has -''x'' in instead e.g. bók - book.ABS, bóx - books.ABS. Likewise words that end in -''g'' or -''t'' change this to -''ts'' e.g. - slave.ABS, lâyts - slaves.ABS and - record.ABS, - records.ABS. In other cases plurals are unmarked e.g. byain - brain.ABS / brains.ABS. Word order in phrases is head-initial. Numbers and adjectives follow the nouns they modify e.g. byet hlan - one piece of bread,'' byets thì'' - two pieces of bread, byets thì kyêyp - two pieces of cheap bread. Note that tone sandhi does not operate across word boundaries. Possessors also follow the possessed noun. If the possessor has two or more syllables then the noun it possesses is inflected. For words of two or more syllables this is by making the last syllable Strong and the others Weak, with consequent tone changes. For monosyllabic words then the prefix dza- is added, although this is affected by the tone sandhi rules. The possessor is uninflected e.g. het lâyg - the slave's head tsahet phaeleits - the security guard's head rtâmúk lâyg - the slave's stomach rtàhmúk phaeleits ''- the security guard's stomach There are two cases, ergative and absolutive. The most common ergative suffixes are -''ùts for singular, -''àñ'' for plural, and -''èag'' for collective nouns e.g. carmén - government. Other suffixes sometimes used are -''ò'' for nouns that do not exist yet, -''òt'' for hypothetical nouns and -''èam'' for nouns associated with the speaker. All these suffixes can undergo tone sandhi. Note that if an animate subject is topicalised, then it takes the absolutive even if the sentence is transitive e.g. tértsôy phaeleitsùts hgupmén destroy security guard-ERG.SG equipment.ABS A security guard is destroying equipment. phaeleits tértsôy hgupmén '' security guard.SG destroy equipment.ABS The security guard is destroying equipment. However ''tértsôy rtômuts hgupmén '' destroy storm-ERG.SG equipment.ABS A storm is destroying equipment. ''rtômuts tértsôy hgupmén '' storm-ERG.SG destroy equipment.ABS The storm is destroying equipment. = Dictionary = Numbers 1 - hlan 2 - thì 3 - hrey 4 - vôñ 5 - vôyg 6 - tsüx 7 - tsêañv 8 - äyl 9 - hnoyn 10 - thèn 11 - thèn hlan 12 - thèn thì 20 - thì thèn 21 - thì thèn hlan 30 - hrey thèn 100 - han 200 - thì han 1,000 - khày (from English "K" e.g. 10K) 1,000,000 - hmiw 1,000,000,000 - biw 1,000,000,000,000 - khyìw 9,876,543,210,987 - hnoyn khyìw äyl han tsêañv thèn tsüx biw' '''vôyg han vôñ hrey hmiw thì han thèn khày hnoyn han äyl thèn tsêañv = Example text = ... Category:Languages